Discuss the political significance of shifting structural (economic, Research Paper

Discuss the political significance of shifting structural (economic, cultural, social, demographic) trends in Texas - Research Paper Example When examining the interactions that interconnect economic outcomes and decision making politically, we are studying structural trends and political economy. Therefore, this paper will discuss the political significance of shifting structural (economic, cultural, social, demographic) trend in Texas. Political economy The economy creates a significant context in understanding of Texas’ political culture. It can assist in the shaping of the political culture. The economy’s development can shape certain political stereotypes and perceptions-and the society’s various sectors. With much involvement of the government in the economy, economic actors from private sectors have every reason to get involved in political participation to become actors in politics (Gutierrez 217). Since the earlier settlement improved by oil production and land grants boosted by state law to the technology backed by the government in the past two decades, the government has been protecting an d promoting state economic interests. It has happened so with the positive participation of political representatives of the interests. This marriage of politics and business has been successful in the Texas government’s council. ... The stability of the marriage of politics and business stands on pragmatism of both the result and the cause of the state’s booming economic history. In Texas, the culture has created entrepreneurial politicians and giants of savvy entrepreneurs, the government has made and protected businesses and established industries with incentives, exemptions, state contracts and subsidies during both wicked and good economic times (Mayer 265).The resulting distortions and inefficiencies in the economy’ structure and negligence of public interests have hindered a diversified development of a modern economy. The in-come tax absence, the reluctance to set a side funds for the delivery of education and social services have distorted the state’s growth and development. With the agreement that the government’s business is to uplift business, it has been constant throughout the history of the state, the public services delivery like public health and education has been pre sent despite constitutional and legal mandate. It is no surprise that the link between the economy and government is political and occupied by the influence of well-financed and well-organized private interests. It is too unsurprising that state governments perpetuate efforts to deriver public services that might raise the state of Texas amongst other states. The interaction patterns between the policy makers and the economic interests in the â€Å"reduced services, low taxes â€Å"government dominance to both the broader body politics and government halls (Mayer 205). Business leaders, such as political leaders and several voters saw government income tax as beyond the reasonable realm. As a result, the state services provision remains low because the money to fund them is little.

Original writing Essay Example for Free

Original writing Essay I desperately waited for the answer. Laura has been murdered I was speechless once again come on honey, think, youve been in this situation before. My brain started to hurt, I was in utter confusion. She was only 9 years old and she was a Buddhist, she had no health problems, she had no enemies well not that I could think of 20 seconds from then has just gone passed without any speech, I received a fax from the south, it was a picture, I took it, I gazed at it in horror. What I saw was something that would never leave my mind. It was a picture of my best friend, brutally murdered a piece of her body probably her arm had been cut into almost equal boxes of about 10 cm each and placed in a certain way to spell something something that still continues today. the LTT. LTT is the Liberation Tigers of Tamil, a terrorist organization in Sri Lanka that began in 1970 as a student protest over the limited university access for Tamil students; currently seeks to establish an independent Tamil state; relies on guerrilla strategy including terrorist tactics that target key government and military personnel; the Tamil Tigers perfected suicide bombing as a weapon of war. They attack the southern part of Sri Lanka where there are many Buddhists, Muslims and Catholic. I never thought the LTT would have gotten this far. but they have. The questions and the disappointment that reached my brain were agonizing. I thought she trusted me, I thought she would tell me everything, I thought she would never doubted me. I thought she told me that there was NO ENEMIES, although I did know she had her little plans for peace, but not clearly. That instance I realised all these years of knowing each other was a bogus we didnt really no each other if we did then why am I so confused? 1. Today is the 22nd of August 2002, 9:15 pm. I stared at the newspaper in my bedroom. The newspaper I remember its the last thing we were talking about before we left, you were very clever for your age, I valued your words highly, I sure didnt seem to care about them, but I did keep it in my head, thats the only thing I have to remind myself of you. Remember once you were reading this newspaper about enlightenment? You gave me the English section; I thought it was pretty stupid, I remember reading it, and putting it away. Do you also remember the next day you went home angry at me for putting curd in your shoes and tying the shoelaces together? I felt bad okay, I waited with the newspaper for you to come back and give it to you, as stupid as it may sound of giving you an old newspaper, I kept it in a way to apologize to you after annoying you and show you that I do take care of your things. but you never came back. I cant ask you anymore, the answers to the questions, the answers to this mystery, and the answers to life. I cant talk to you no more, Mum will think Im gone insane because only mad people talk to a newspapers. But then I wouldnt mind because if murdering people is how sane people are, then Id love to be insane. I can however read it to you; this page will always be in my mind. Ill hold you to my ear so you can tell me what happened, but I know newspapers cant talk. Ill draw you in the newspaper and then you can talk But only computer animations do that. Remember yesterday when you flew over to the temple through my window, and you were floating with the wind? Remember I ran after you screaming and shouting your name? Remember people staring at me, thinking I was a stupid child running after a newspaper? I dont care what they think, what matters is what I think, I think of you, Ill cuddle you, Ill die for you, you are that one person that I ALWAYS trust, that one person who is very dear to me, even if you are just a friend, you were part of the family. Sorry for all the things I told you, it was a misunderstanding, you understand right? Thats what best friends do, thats what humans do. Please come back, at least give me a clue pointing me to the direction of where this happened, maybe how the angels pointed to the illumination church in Vatican city just like Dan Brown says in his book of Angels and Demons, but yours with newspapers perhaps? Remember when we played this little game of treasure hunt in the back garden? Please tell me this is one of that, you know I hate mysteries, then why did have to leave me mystified? Give me the answer to this mystery, Ill try my best, point me towards it, whatever, Ill find my way, I know you will guide me so I wont get scared. Ill promise you Ill do whatever you wanted me to do; Ill play lots and lots of treasure hunt games with you, even if I think its stupid. Are you satisfied now? Please come back. Please tell me this is a joke. Ill email you, but I cant, I dont have your address, Theres no point in emailing you because maybe you dont have computers up there or you just dont a email account. Is it [emailprotected] com? You have to live in a place you have computers to read my mail. I cant send you a post card or a letter can I? I dont have your address; do you have a postman up there? Im sorry I spilled water in your painting, I hope thats not why you went, I promise I wont do it again, you know Im clumsy and thats how I learn. Only I know how painful it is to tell you this, but I regret shouting at you, annoying you just because I was bored, I know you were joking those times but I took it seriously. But anyhow and anyway I wish you were back. Ill staple my mouth so I wont scream at you and loose you again. I read this newspaper over and over again, to see if you had left me a clue, the only clue I found was heaven, is that it? If I keep this, it will remind me of you, Ill place it carefully and keep it organised the way you like it. Ill make sure your letters wont dissolve in my tears. I should stop now, I wouldnt want to wet you, dont worry Ill look after you. I take care of you like you took care of me and stood beside me in everything I did. Oh how I wish you were back. Please, please, please come back. I miss you awfully.

Conflict and Natural Resources Relationship to Growth

Conflict and Natural Resources Relationship to Growth Is the incidence of Conflict and an abundance of Natural Resources in African States  correlated with Economic Growth? Table of Contents (Jump to) Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Aims and Objectives 1.2 Overview Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 The â€Å"Resource Curse† economic theory 2.1.1 The African Link 2.2 The causes of the â€Å"Resource Curse† 2.2.1. The â€Å"crowding out† cause 2.2.2. Quality of institutions 2.2.3. The â€Å"Dutch Disease† model 2.2.4 Other theoretical economic arguments 2.3 Civil war and economic growth 2.4 Natural resources role in Civil war Chapter 3: Influence of natural resources on economic growth 3.1 The cause of â€Å"the resource curse† 3.2 Is â€Å"the recourse curse† relevant to Africa? 3.3 Other influential factors Chapter 4: The role of conflict Chapter 5: Empirical evidence Chapter 6: Conclusion References During the course of the past two or three decades many economists and academics have been endeavouring to discover why a proliferation of natural resources, which is normally considered to be a wealth generating sources often have an adverse effect upon emerging economies, slowing rather than increasing the pace of development (Rodriguez and Sachs 1999, p.277 and Isham et al 2005, p.1). Other studies, concentrating particularly upon emerging nations is areas such as the African continent, have also claimed that there is a link between the proliferation of natural resources and political unrest and conflicts, which manifest themselves in â€Å"civil wars† (DiJohn 2002, p.1). A number of theories have been advanced in an effort to offer an explanation for this phenomenon. These include the â€Å"resource curse† theoretic model promoted by Gelb (1988) and Sachs and Warner (1997); the â€Å"rent-seeking† and â€Å"Dutch Disease† models referred to in research carried out by Torvik (2001 and 2002) and DiJohn (2002), whilst others link the causes more directly to the institutions and political conditions pertaining to the individual nation (Mehlum et al 2005 and Isham et al 2005). However, other researches have suggested that such models should be treated with caution. For example, Stijins (2005, p.3), suggest that earlier â€Å"resource curse† models have limitations, and this view is echoed in the works of Rosser (2007, p.39) and others. There have been similar divisions across the academic divide regarding the link between the level and treatment of natural resources and the propensity for civil unrest and violence, which culminates in most cases in civil wars. Whilst many observers view the cause of this unrest as being linked to natural resources and the political environment (Keen 2005, p.12) and the â€Å"difference in quality of institutions† (Mehlum et al 2005, p.3), others, including Rosser (2007, p.40), suggest that the level of strategic importance of the location of the individual nation may also be a determining factor, if not in the causality of civil war then in its potential longevity and likelihood of its reoccurrence. In addition, as Collier (2003, p.6), the globally perception held in many areas, that â€Å"nothing can be done† to end such disputes, add to the problem. The divergence of views and research results indicated previously does raise questions regarding the efficiency and effectiveness of any action that may be taken to resolve the issues outlined, either within an individual nation or when addressing a specific geographical area. For example, whilst addressing the â€Å"resource curse† or â€Å"Dutch disease† may have some positive impact on the economic growth and development in emerging economies, it could follow that without a simultaneous response to address the issue of political structure, institutions and civil war, such benefits would be negated by other influences. 1.1 Aims and Objectives The intention of this paper is to evaluate whether there is a common denominator that can be found to link the entire multitude of research together into one cohesive argument. Using the African states as a basis for this research it is felt that the conclusion of the paper could add to the continuing research into finding a unique theoretical model that will provide a format for improving the economic growth and development of poorer nations, particularly those that have not been seen to have gained economic growth and development benefits from their natural resource levels and capabilities. Thus, to identify a fundamental aim for this paper, it is considered that the conclusion of the study will be intended to seek an answer to the following question: â€Å"Is the incidence of Conflict and an abundance of Natural Resources in African States correlated with Economic Growth?† Furthermore, in order to provide a structure that will assist with the achievement of a conclusion to this conundrum, the author has set four main objectives for the research, which in concise terms can be identified as: Providing an assessment the relationship between a country’s economic growth and its dependence upon the export of natural resource products. Evaluating the claim that there is a link between civil war and economic growth and seek to distinguish the key elements that pertain to that link, which might include institutional and political performance. Assessing the level of probability of civil war resulting from a nations dependence upon natural resources. Reviewing the impact of strategic location, or lack of, and the potential influence this has upon internal conflict that might exist within the development process of an individual national or regional economy. 1.2 Overview For ease of reference the paper has been organised in the following manner. Following on from this introduction, in chapter two a critical review of recent theoretical literature relating to the subject being studied will be conducted. This will include an overview of the theories relating to natural resource impact and dependency, the relationship between civil war, natural resources and economic growth and other arguments that have been expounded upon in recent literature. Chapter three includes a discussion on the influence that natural resources has economic growth and political unrest and this is followed in chapter four by a more detailed analysis of the role of that conflict plays economic performance of nations who have these resources. In chapter six we provide and analyse the empirical evidence as it relates to the nations of Africa. This structure will enable us to reach a conclusion in chapter sever regarding the question set for the study (see page 5). A bibliography of sources and appropriate appendicles follow the conclusion of the research. As stated in introduction to this research, there has been a considerable amount of research carried out in regards to the influence that a wealth of natural resources has upon the economic growth of the poorer and emerging countries, as well as the relationship this has upon civil war and political unrest or imbalance. Within this review it is intended to focus upon the main economic and conflict theories that have been developed and discussed in recent decades. 2.1 The â€Å"Resource Curse† economic theory It is the negative or reduced economic growth patterns that have been experienced by nations that have significant natural resources, which has given rise to the term â€Å"resource curse,† and which has given rise to a considerable amount of literature and research since the late 1980’s, amongst the foremost of which is that conducted by Gelb (1988), Sachs and Warner (1997), Rodriguez and Sachs (1999) and Sala-i-Martin, and Subramanian, (2003, p.833), although there has been a proliferation of other works. The starting point and motivation for much, if not all of the research and literature relating to the â€Å"resource curse†, resulted from the significant difference that had been found to exist between the real economic growth performance of manufacturing and natural resource exporting countries over the years, as measured by the movement of GDP[1]. One of the latest examples of an analysis of this differential can be found in the review carried out for the World Bank by Isham et al (2005), which compared growth rates over a 40-year period (see figure 1). When converted into graphical format (see figure 2), the extent of the deceleration of national resource exporters and the differential between these and manufacture becomes more obviously apparent. As can be seen from the analysis (figure 1) in the first half of the period, when natural resources were being discovered and exploited, the GDP gap between these exporting nations and the manufactures exporters was more than halved, in fact in some periods the growth rate for natural resource rich countries was outperforming other areas (Le Billon 2005, p.13). But this improvement saw a dramatic reversal between 1975 and 1997. This performance has been directly linked to the movement of the natural resource revenue in other research, for example that conducted by Rodriguez and Sach (1999), where a similar pattern is revealed to be linked to the production of petroleum (see figure 3). However, taking the period in its entirety, as the figures and graph show, whilst the GDP for those countries that did not have a significant level of natural resources (the manufacturing exporters) grew by 1.02 %, even the best performing growth rates for natural resources elements, being diffuse at -0.43%, reveals a growth rate gap of 1.45%. At the extreme end of the scale according the Isham et al (2005, p.12) that gap exceeds 3.5%, which explains why when taken as a whole the differential between the two types of exporters increases to 3% by the end of the period being studied. 2.1.1 The African Link The majority of the research that has explored the â€Å"resource curse† has determined that this phenomenon has been particularly noticeable in the case of poorer and developing nations where, despite their high levels of natural resource and reserves, growth levels have been low or even regressed, in stark contrast to the performance of other nations that do not have the luxury of natural resources (Rodriguez and Sachs 1999, p.277 and Sach and Warner 2001, p.828). For example, Mehlum et al’s (2005) research concludes that many African countries with such resource levels have been afflicted by the curse, particularly those in the Sub-Saharan regions, which include Nigeria, Zambia, Sierra Leone and Angola. In support of the link between the â€Å"resource curse† and the African nations, researchers have used data from a variety of sources as evidence to support their hypotheses, most of which is based upon the analysis of GDP. For example, using a similar period to Isham et al (2005) (see figure 1 on page 8), the World Bank â€Å"World Development Indicators† show that, although rich in resources to a similar if not better level than other developing countries, the Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have fared much worse than others (see figure 4), Similarly, long-term patterns, dating back nearly two centuries (see figure 5), are used to support the fact that the curse is caused by factors outside of the possession of the resource itself. 2.2 The causes of the â€Å"Resource Curse† In investigating the cause of the â€Å"resource curse,† current literature has a divergence of views relating to the economic, political and other elements that conspire to create this environment. Various researchers have identified a number of different factors as being the root causes of, or significant contributory reasons for the â€Å"resource curse.† 2.2.1. The â€Å"crowding out† cause Of the most widely cited research, which includes the studies of being Sachs and Warner (2001) and Gelb (1998), describe the main issue as a effectively being a â€Å"crowding out† situation, whereby the concentration upon the natural resource has led to a situation where other exportable resources, such as manufacturing and production exports, which are considered to be important elements in a nations economic growth process, are at worst effectively neglected, or at best considered to be of reduced importance. This theory is supported by other research. Torvik (2002, p.455-456) acknowledges that this â€Å"crowding out† theory works on the premise that â€Å"an increased amount of natural resources then lowers productivity in all [other] sectors† of the economy. One popular variation of this model that has been developed is known as the â€Å"Rentier† state model (Torvik 2002, p.455). Torvik (2002, p.456) explains that in this case the negative impact on growth is generated by the fact that as powerful groups are attracted to the natural resource, they create an overcrowding within the natural resource sector, which again has the effect of contributing to the lowering growth rates. Sachs and Warner (2001, p.833) suggest that the major elements of â€Å"crowding out† are the fact that perceived and actual increase in wealth generated from the resource increases demand and leads to higher prices throughout the economy, thus making manufacturing less competitive, particular in respect of international trade. In addition (Ibid, p.835) the research also suggests that another contributory factor is the loss of â€Å"knowledge† available to manufacturing and other sectors caused by the profit attraction of the natural resource sector, which adds to the diminishing of the competitiveness of these sectors. Innovative entrepreneurs will be attracted to take their resources away from production and into the natural resource sectors, which offers them a higher level of profit and return at a relatively lower costs. In comparison therefore, the manufacturing areas are seen to be unproductive (Mehlum 2005, p.5), which is bad for economic growth. This explanatio n concurs with the results of Sala-i-Martin and Subramanian (2003, p.15 and Le Billon, 2005, p.5), which indicates that the movement of labour away from agriculture to natural resources has contributed to a near halving of this sectors share of GDP in many countries, as evidence in Nigeria. 2.2.2. Quality of institutions Other research, in dissimilarity to the popularity of the popular Sach and Warner view (Mehlum et al 2005, p.5), promotes the theory that the causes of â€Å"natural resource curse† are more closely related to the political and institutional failure to deal with the revenue, or â€Å"Windfall Gains† as Dalgaard and Olsson (2006, p.1) and others describe them. Sala-i-Martin and Subramanian (2003, p.8) findings in a study of the economic growth situation in Nigeria suggest that natural resources are â€Å"detrimental to institutional quality.† However, their research does find that this adverse effect of institutions appears to be more significant with oils and minerals than other natural resources and that once there is control within these institutions, the negativity impact ceases (Sala-i-Martin and Subramanian 2003, p.12), a view that Isham et al (2005, p.21) takes further by suggesting that the type of resource will â€Å"play a large role in shaping what kin ds of institutional forms exist and persist.† An efficient, effective or strong institution or government can be modeled largely on the western demographic models, where this is a large degree of interaction and connection between the political forces and the citizens, with transparency and accountability being an integral part of the institutions structure (Moore 2004, p.313). Similarly, in cases where strong institutions exist, he likelihood is that the natural resource will be owned by the people, (albeit it through shares in corporations), rather than the state itself. The only connection between state and resource will be through the taxes that it levies on the commercial profits made from that resource. Weak institutions tend to be less democratic, in some cases being controlled by dictators and military juntas that pay little heed to the needs of the citizen, preferring simply to concerns themselves with the needs of their power and personal wealth. Mehlum (2006, p.5) studies also confirm the institutional quality as being an important influence, in this respect leading to their conclusions that the â€Å"resource curse† is more prevalent in countries that have weak or poor quality of institutions, being those that are undermined by ethnic or non-democratic processes (Le Billon 2005, p.24). They describe these weak institutions as being â€Å"grabber friendly† A survey carried out during the course of their research found that out of 87 countries examined, only 15 were considered to have level and quality of institutions necessary to be effective in avoiding the affects or the curse. As with the earlier discussion on GDP, Isham et al (2005, p.13), again provides us with data support of the institutional influence (see figure 3). If we look at the top half of this list, which represents the elements of weak institutions, we see that whilst manufacture exporters still achieve a growth pattern, albeit small, resource exporters are afflicted with negative growth. Conversely, with the stronger elements of institutions in place, the natural â€Å"resource curse† is not apparent, with the resource exporters showing all the signs of reasonable levels of economic growth. Whilst agreeing with the principle that, particularly in Africa, institutions and the political structures are weak and therefore at risk from the â€Å"resource curse,† Dalgaard and Olsson (2006, p.4) add another element to the discussion, claiming the â€Å"windfall† element of the resource rent, added together with the level of Aid the country receives, exacerbate the problem of â€Å"resource curse.† Likening the resource windfalls to a lottery win Dalgaard and Olsson suggest that, faced with this relatively sudden new found source of wealth, the institutions are not sufficiently experienced in being able to administer it effectively and this produced a negative effect in institutional areas such as the rule of law and levels of corruption (Dalgaard and Olsson 2006, p.25). This is evidenced by the fact that â€Å"An IMF report on Angola, for example, suggests that close to $1 billion disappeared from the state coffers in 2001 alone, due to corruption, while fiscal discrepancies over the previous several years represented between 2 and 23% of the country’s GDP† Ross, 2003, p.9). 2.2.3. The â€Å"Dutch Disease† model To the extent that the â€Å"Dutch Disease† model relates to the potential for a reversal of industrialisation Sach and Warner (2001) favour the â€Å"Dutch Disease† model, although they do not support the element of this argument that suggest an increase in workers wages in all areas of the economy (Sach and Warner 2001, p.836). As the term indicates, the â€Å"Dutch Disease† theory was based upon the events experienced by the Netherlands following the discovery of natural â€Å"gas† resources within the country’s national waters in the mid 1950’s (Gylfason 2001, p.2). The elements of this theory rest upon three main areas. Firstly, the fact that the upward movement of the currency for a particular country following the discovery of resources exacerbates the manufacturing and servicing sectors, in that it reduces their price competitiveness (Gylfason 2001, p.2 and Sach and Warner 2001, p..834). As Torvik (2002, p.2) indicates, because it is because â€Å"changes in the composition of production that determines the level or the growth rate of productivity,† that the upward movement of currency prices has such a negative impact on internal production and welfare. Secondly, historically is has been noted that the global prices of resource materials is subject to a high level of fluctuation, which is caused by changes in the stocks, both in the resource rich country and other areas of the world (Gyflason 2001, p.3) For example, in the case of Norway, if other gas resource rich nations run out of supplies, the Norwegian resource will increase in value. Finally, the combination of the two previous elements causes financial exchange rate instability (Sach and Warner 1997 p.358 and Gyflason 2001, p.4). Gfylason suggests that this has an adverse effect on other areas such as foreign investment. Nevertheless, irrespective of these factors, in the case of Norway, their effect was limited and this is an element that Gylfason concentrated his efforts on discovering why this country’s economic performance did not perform in the same adverse way that other â€Å"OPEC† countries experienced as a result of the discovery of natural resources, which included nations located in Africa, nor did it have the same longer term effect. The discovered differential relied upon two main elements. Firstly, that Norway had been a developed nation for some years prior to the discovery and, secondly, as a result of the development position financial, social and political institutions in Norway were more â€Å"mature† (Gylfason 2001, p.10), therefore more likely to be able to avoid the adverse effects of the â€Å"resource curse,† which was not the case with other OPEC countries. These results reinforced the conclusion of other researchers in regards to two areas, these being that there is a relationship between â€Å"weak institutions† and the curse of natural resources and that the negative elements of the â€Å"Dutch disease† is essentially only a major issue for such institutions. 2.2.4  Other theoretical economic arguments Recently, economists and observers have sought to further clarify the theoretical argument relating to the â€Å"curse† of national resources by looking at other potential theoretical arguments, which would both support and potentially extend the existing literature on the subject of the â€Å"resource curse.† For example, Dalgaard and Olsson’s (2006, p.25) research indicated that there might be a connection between foreign aid and the resource curse, particularly in African nations that are the recipients of such aid. Whilst stopping short of agreeing with Burnside and Dollar’s (Quoted in Dalgaard and Olsson 2006, p.13) conclusion on this subject, this being the â€Å"aid only stimulated growth if accompanied by sufficiently sound macro-economic policies: e.g. low inflation and budget balance,† it was felt that further research into the systems and processes used for the distribution of aid was needed, as the likelihood of a connection with the eco nomic performance of a recipient nation could not be discounted. Another argument that has been put forward as elements of cause for the â€Å"resource† curse is the impact of an individual nation’s culture and geographic position. Dalgaard and Olsson (2006, p.19 and 20) believe that these issues should not be discounted. They point out that culture has been found to have a direct link to the level of corruption that exists within a nations political institution. In terms of geographical position, Dalgaard and Olsson’s study promote two arguments to support this being a classed as a source. The first of these is related to size, where it is argued that the greater the size of the country, the more extensive will be its institutions and, therefore, if the culture has a high corruption level, this will be increased (Dalgaard and Olson, 2006, p.19). Secondly, there is a potential for a historical link between geographical and institutions (Dalgaard and Ollsson 2006, p.14). In this case, the study sets the case for arguing that, because of the problems associated with areas such as the tropics, which includes high mortality rates and tropical climates, the early influence of Western institutional structure did not expand into these areas of the world as they had in others. As an example, they cite the colonial spread, which was not as widespread in the African continent as it was in places like India. Thus, this element of the theory is based upon the fact that those countries who had a foundation of good western institutions being better able to escape the â€Å"resource curse.† Phenomenon. However, other researchers do not agree with this scenario. Sach and Warner (2001, p.2 and 3) argue that using these determinates within the resource curse studies would lead to anomalies id data, with some countries appearing to be â €Å"high-natural resource† economies simply as a result of the inadequate or negative performance of other area of their economies, and visa-versa. In this regard they hold that â€Å"geography and climate variables do not eliminate the natural resource variable.† Sach and Warner 1999, p.5). Finally, but not totally unconnected with other arguments, is the argument relating to the problem of managing sudden excess. Referred to within Dalgaard and Olsson (2006, p.1) as the ineptitude of institutions at managing â€Å"windfall gains,† other reason it is the false perception of security that accompanies natural resources, which effectively provide â€Å"people with a false sense of security and lead governments to lose sight of the need for good and growth-friendly economic management, including free trade, bureaucratic efficiency, and institutional quality† (Gylfason 2001, p.7). Taking a slightly different tangent, although with a similar vein, Rodriguez and Sach (1999, p. 278), define that these countries are effectively â€Å"living beyond their means.† The view here is that resource rich countries are consuming the revenue from this resource without taking into account the fact that, unlike other areas of production, the stock of these resources can not be produced or expanded as quickly, therefore creating an increasing gap between revenue and expenditure, which eventually lead to a situation where the nation will reach a point where future revenue may have to be mortgaged to meet current expenditure. In summary, perhaps Gyflason (2001, p.8) puts it succinctly when he states that, irrespective of which argument one supports or how the individual may qualify it in academic terms, the core agreement is that â€Å"an abundance of natural capital may erode or reduce the quality of social, human, and physical capital, and thus stand in the way of rapid economic growth.† 2.3 Civil war and economic growth Irrespective of the divergence of views expressed within the literature outline in the previous sections of this chapter, one area that almost all are agreed upon is that in addition to the lack of economic growth resulting from the â€Å"resource curse,† this growth can also be adversely affected by the political stability of the nation, particularly where conflict and civil war is involved. The common definition of civil war is that conflict which leads to one thousand deaths or more. Similarly, the popular western perception is that the causes of such conflicts are caused by racial or religious tensions (Collier 2000, p.95-96). Whilst this may be true in terms of the sides taken in internal power struggles (Keen 2000, p.24), in most cases these are fuelled by a struggle to control resources. To this extent there is an economic element (Keen 2000, p.22 and Berdel and Malone 2000, p.28). Mehlum (2003, p.275) and Keen (2000, p.29) reinforce this viewpoint with the findings that those involved with these conflicts include elements from all aspects of society, such as rebels, military, political and commercial factions. In other words, particularly in countries with weak political controls â€Å"a war may be seen as continuation of economics by other means† (Keen 2000, p.22) rather than a simple clash of ideologies. Methlum et al (2005, p.6) confirm this argument, showing that in a country that have institutions and governments deemed to be weak, which is the case in many African states, this results in a situation where â€Å"the government is unable to provide basic security.† They conclude that such a situation creates an environment that fuels an increase in violence and civil wars, with control of natural resources being the main success target of the conflict and, ironically, used to finance many of these activities. Providing evidence of this in his study relating to the phenomenon of conflict diamonds, Olsson (2004, p.3) states that in countries with rich resources and weak institutions, natural resources can often lead to a triangular conflict environment of â€Å"a ruler (the prey) in control of a flow of natural resource rents, and a rebel (the predator) who might choose to prey on the ruler’s natural resource,† with the ordinary person in between these, that can create an adverse economic effect. Because the rebel wants to appropriate the natural resources, this forces the ruler to invest resources in defence, thus lessening the resources available for production and reducing the potential for economic growth. As is indicated later in this same research (Olsson 004, p.14), this situation of fuelling conflict and lining the pockets of dictators is not just limited to diamonds, but extends to a number of other natural resources. Other literature has confirmed the connection between the potential for conflict and economic growth. Rodrigueaz and Sach (1999, p.19) commenting upon the aspect of nations living beyond their means, found that, in the case of Venezuela, this leads to unrest and conflict. Dalgaard and Olsoson (2006, p.8) also identified that the high level of natural resources, when combined with weak government and low productivity in areas of production not related to natural resources, produced a â€Å"higher risk of potential conflict.† Both of these studies concluded that these conflicts served to deepen the adverse effects on economic growth. As Rodrik (1998, p.3) showed in his research, the biggest falls in GDP rates post 1975 occurred in countries that were socially divided and unable to manage conflict and these countries, more often than not, were those with high levels of natural resources (Wagner 2007). Thus it is concluded that civil war can serve to significantly damage economic growth (Rodrik 1998, p.3). 2.4 Natural resources role in Civil war One of the recurrent themes in the literature relating to natural resources, as has been identified within the previous sections, is the impact that natural resources and economics has upon social unrest and conflict. For example, Le Roux’s (2004, p.3) research suggests that as

Free Essays - Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man :: Alexander Pope Essay on Man

Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man An enormous emphasis was placed on the ability to think and reason during the Enlightenment. People during this era thought and reasoned about a variety of topics. Some people concerned themselves with the issue of God, which consequently caused many to question the church. Others were concerned with the organization of the Universe, and man’s place within that Universe. The first epistle of Alexander Pope’s â€Å"Essay on Man† can be considered an articulation of the Enlightenment because it encompasses three major concerns of the people during the Enlightenment. Pope addresses man’s ability to reason and think for himself, he questions the church and the nature of Christianity, and he also speculates about man’s place in the world, as apart of the great chain of life. The ability to reason was the central focus of the Enlightenment also denoted The Age of Reason. Pope begins epistle one by appealing to the reason of his audience. He writes, â€Å"Together let us beat this ample field, / Try to open, what the covert yield!† Pope encourages his audience to use the reason they have been given, to examine those things that have been advised against. To reason about those issues which have been kept in secrecy. He then goes on to write â€Å"say first, of God above, or man below, / What can we reason, but from what we know?† Pope again is addressing the ability of his audience to reason. He is trying to bring them into the 18th century, asking them to look for evidence in the knowledge they receive, rather then allowing the church to spoon-feed them all of their knowledge. bodyOffer() During the Enlightenment, people began to question the church for the first time. Pope exemplifies this when he writes, â€Å"no Christians thirst for gold.† Pope subtly questions the nature of Christianity and Christians by exposing their own sinful desire for material goods. His words are simple, but they say a lot. By acknowledging that these Christians sin, and â€Å"thirst for gold,† he asks then why a man is looked down upon if they do not aspire to be Christian, since Christians have a sinful nature just like that of every other man. Pope was not alone in questioning Christianity and the church. David Hume writes, â€Å"the Truth of Christian Religion is less than the Evidence for the Truth of our Senses†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Many writers during the Enlightenment not only questioned Christianity, but also the church in general.

Abortion & human

The term abortion refers to the termination of a pregnancy by the removal or expulsion of the fetus or embryo from the uterus resulting in its death. The term is most commonly used to refer to the induced abortion of a human pregnancy.Abortions in humans can occur spontaneously where it is carried out due to complications that occur in the duration of the pregnancy; this is also called a miscarriage or it can be induced.An abortion can either be therapeutic in which case the abortion is induced with the aim of protecting the health of the mother or it can also be termed as an elective abortion in which case the abortion is procured for reasons other than protecting the health of the mother.Abortion has a long history and whereas modern advancements in the medical world have allowed for the use of medications and relatively safe surgical procedures to induce abortion, the traditional methods included the use of sharp tools to inflict physical trauma. A pregnancy can be intentionally t erminated in a number of ways.The manner selected mainly depends on the gestational age of the embryo or fetus the full gestational age of a full pregnancy being approximately twenty two weeks.The procedure may also depend on the legality of the procedure in the particular country, the availability of the procedure in terms of the equipment required as well as the skilled personnel to carry it out. It may also depend on the preference of both the doctor and the patient whereby both parties may settle on one procedure in favor of another.In cases where the decision to undergo elective abortion is based on therapeutic causes, the termination of the pregnancy maybe carried out in an attempt to save the life of the mother.This is done in cases where medical doctors have determined that to allow the pregnancy to develop further would pose a considerable risk to the life of the mother.The abortion can also be carried out where medical doctors have ascertained that an abortion of the pregn ancy would preserve the physical or mental health of the mother.A therapeutic abortion can also be carried out to terminate a pregnancy that would result in a child born with a congenital disorder that would be fatal. It can also be carried out in cases associated with multiple pregnancies to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen the health risks.There are various techniques and procedures that can be used in terminating a pregnancy. One of these methods is medical abortion that uses pharmaceutical drugs to terminate the pregnancy. Medical abortion is a non surgical method.Surgical methods have a variety of options. In the first twelve weeks, vacuum abortion is the most common method consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta and membranes by suction, it can be done manually using a manual syringe or by using an electric pump. Another method of abortion is by dilation and curettage which involves cleaning of the walls of the uterus with a curette.Where the pregn ancy is in the second trimester other techniques must be used to induce premature delivery using other drugs. Another method that can be used to terminate a pregnancy in its latter stages is hysterotomy abortion which is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia.Abortion is at times also attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen; however the degree of force if severe can cause serious internal injuries without succeeding in killing the fetus. This kind of abortion can be subject to criminal liability in many countries.Reported methods of unsafe and self induced abortion by insertion of non surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus have been seen in developing nations but rarely in developed countries where surgical abortion is legal and accessible.Also in countries where abortion is not legal the pregnant women may seek to terminate the pregnancies in illegal setups which could also lead to the women losing their lives in the process of trying to secure an abortion.The practice of abortion also comes with various health risks and complications. The risk of complications can increase depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed. Early term surgical abortion is a simple procedure which is safer than abortions carried out much later in the pregnancy.The risks that come with abortion maybe physical pain or mental anguish for the patient as a result of the emotional attachment that could have been formed with the pregnancy, lack of social support to assist the patient in coping with her decision or even as a result where the woman may have been forced into having an abortion and she would personally have wanted to carry the pregnancy for a full term, presence of pre-existing psychiatric illness whereby the woman may already have been having mental complications that are now compounded by the effects of the abortion.Also in some cases the woman might suffer from mental anguish as a result of the guilt that the woman may be feeling as a result of the abortion, this is usually the case especially where the woman comes from a strong religious background that does not support abortion.Women choose to undergo abortion for various reasons. Some women procure abortions due to a sense of immaturity. This is usually the case especially where young women in their teenage and early twenties are concerned.They feel that they are not yet ready for the responsibilities that accompany motherhood. They may also feel that a child at such a young age will act as a barrier to her chance of advancing in her career or to her chances of pursuing a higher education. Some women may also terminate pregnancies in an attempt to end childbearing.

Free Essays on Capital Punishment In The Religious Perspective

Capital Punishment in the Religious Perspective Some Christians believe that capital punishment does not apply to the New Testament and church age. First we must acknowledge that God gave the principle of capital punishment even before the institution of the Old Testament law code. In Genesis 9:6 we read that "Whoever sheds man's blood by man his blood shall be shed, for in the image of God, He made man." â€Å"Capital punishment was instituted by God because humans are created in the image of God. The principle is not rooted in the Old Testament theocracy, but rather in the creation order† (Anderson). It is a much broader biblical principle that carries into the New Testament. Even so, some Christians argue that in the Sermon on the Mount Jesus seems to be arguing against capital punishment. But is He? In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus is not arguing against the principle of a life for a life. He is speaking about the issue of our personal desire for vengeance. He is not denying the power and responsibility of the government. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus is speaking to individual Christians. He is telling Christians that they should not try to replace the power of the government. Jesus does not deny the power and authority of government, but rather He calls individual Christians to love their enemies and turn the other cheek (Anderson). Some have said that Jesus set aside capital punishment in John 8 when He did not call for the woman caught in adultery to be stoned (Anderson). But remember the context. The Pharisees were trying to trap Jesus between the Roman law and the Mosaic law. If He said that they should stone her, He would break the Roman law. If He refused to allow them to stone her, He would break the Mosaic law (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22). Jesus' answer avoided the conflict: He said that he who was without sin should cast the first stone. Since He did teach that a stone be thrown (John 8:7), this is not an abolition of... Free Essays on Capital Punishment In The Religious Perspective Free Essays on Capital Punishment In The Religious Perspective Capital Punishment in the Religious Perspective Some Christians believe that capital punishment does not apply to the New Testament and church age. First we must acknowledge that God gave the principle of capital punishment even before the institution of the Old Testament law code. In Genesis 9:6 we read that "Whoever sheds man's blood by man his blood shall be shed, for in the image of God, He made man." â€Å"Capital punishment was instituted by God because humans are created in the image of God. The principle is not rooted in the Old Testament theocracy, but rather in the creation order† (Anderson). It is a much broader biblical principle that carries into the New Testament. Even so, some Christians argue that in the Sermon on the Mount Jesus seems to be arguing against capital punishment. But is He? In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus is not arguing against the principle of a life for a life. He is speaking about the issue of our personal desire for vengeance. He is not denying the power and responsibility of the government. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus is speaking to individual Christians. He is telling Christians that they should not try to replace the power of the government. Jesus does not deny the power and authority of government, but rather He calls individual Christians to love their enemies and turn the other cheek (Anderson). Some have said that Jesus set aside capital punishment in John 8 when He did not call for the woman caught in adultery to be stoned (Anderson). But remember the context. The Pharisees were trying to trap Jesus between the Roman law and the Mosaic law. If He said that they should stone her, He would break the Roman law. If He refused to allow them to stone her, He would break the Mosaic law (Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22). Jesus' answer avoided the conflict: He said that he who was without sin should cast the first stone. Since He did teach that a stone be thrown (John 8:7), this is not an abolition of...

Vacines Immunity Example

Vacines Immunity Example Vacines & Immunity – Coursework Example Vaccine and immunity Immunity refers to the ability of the human body to tolerate the invasion of the pathogen and finallyeliminate it from the body. Antibodies are the main basic unit that carries out the function of fighting and naturally eliminating the pathogen from the body. Antibodies detect the pathogens through foreign molecules on the pathogens’ surface. After this, antibodies attach to pathogens surface to execute actions against the pathogen. Antibodies act against pathogen invasion through various processes including the opsonization, neutralization, complement activation, and receptor-mediated cell activation (Long, Larry and Charles 617). Through these actions, the antibodies eliminate pathogens and neutralize pathogen toxins. The action is important in protecting the body from diseases that a person may have had before. Antibodies protect the body through passive or active immunity.Formation of vaccines involves the attenuation of pathogens. Vaccine formation ma y involve the use of the whole organism like influenza or part of the organism like tetanus bacteria (MacPherson and Jon 95). Introduction of these attenuated or killed pathogens causes antibodies to react against them. However, production of most effective immune system depends on live antigens. At this point, the weakened pathogens cannot cause any disease hence function only to cause activation of the immune system. They can trigger the immune system because they contain antigens that activate B and T cells (Chiras 46). Memory cells then store futures of the pathogen for future reference. If a live pathogen causing the disease invades in future, the body reacts by fast mobilization specific antibodies against the pathogen through help of memory cells. Elimination of the pathogen in real infection becomes fast after the previous encounter. The action of the immune system ensures elimination of pathogens from the body without much replication. Through this mechanism, vaccines induc e active immunity against pathogens such as measles and poliomyelitis viruses.Works citedChiras, Daniel D.  Human Body Systems: Structure, Function, and Environment. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2013. Print.Long, Sarah S, Larry K. Pickering, and Charles G. Prober.  Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, 2012. Print.MacPherson, Gordon, and Jon Austyn.  Exploring Immunology: Concepts and Evidence. Hoboken: Wiley, 2013. Print.

Profile of the Scandinavian Explorer Erik the Red

Profile of the Scandinavian Explorer Erik the Red Erik Thorvaldson (also spelled Eric or Eirik Torvaldsson; in Norwegian, Eirik Raude). As the son of Thorvald, he was known as Erik Thorvaldson until he was dubbed the Red for his red hair. Notable Accomplishment Founding the first European settlement on Greenland. Occupations LeaderExplorer Places of Residence and Influence Scandinavia Important Dates Born: c. 950 Died: 1003 Biography Much of what scholars understand about Eriks life comes from Eirik the Reds Saga, an epic tale written by an unknown author in the mid-13th century.   Erik was born in Norway to a man named Thorvald and his wife and was thus known as Erik Thorvaldsson. He was given the name Erik the Red because of his red hair; although later sources attribute the moniker to his fiery temper, there is no clear evidence of this. When Erik was still a child, his father was convicted of manslaughter and exiled from Norway. Thorvald went to Iceland and took Erik with him. Thorvald and his son lived in western Iceland. Not long after Thorvald died, Erik married a woman named Thjodhild, whose father, Jorund, may have provided the land that Erik and his bride settled on in Haukadale (Hawkdale). It was while he was living at this homestead, which Erik named Eriksstadr (Eriks farm), that his thralls (servants) caused a landslide that damaged the farm belonging to his neighbor Valthjof. A kinsman of Valthjof, Eyjolf the Foul, killed the thralls. In retaliation, Erik killed Eyjolf and at least one other man. Rather than escalate a blood feud, Eyjolfs family instituted legal proceedings against Erik for these killings. Erik was found guilty of manslaughter and banished from Hawkdale. He then took up residence further north (according to Eiriks Saga, He occupied then Brokey and Eyxney, and dwelt at Tradir, in Sudrey, the first winter.)   While building a new homestead, Erik lent what were apparently valuable pillars for seat-stocks to his neighbor, Thorgest. When he was ready to claim their return, Thorgest refused to give them up. Erik took possession of the pillars himself, and Thorgest gave chase; fighting ensued, and several men were killed, including two sons of Thorgest. Once again legal proceedings took place, and once again Erik was banished from his home for manslaughter. Frustrated with these legal wranglings, Erik turned his eyes westward. The edges of what turned out to be an enormous island were visible from the mountaintops of western Iceland, and the Norwegian Gunnbjà ¶rn Ulfsson had sailed near the island some years earlier, though if hed made landfall its not recorded. There was no doubt that there was some kind of land there, and Erik determined to explore it himself and determine whether or not it could be settled. He set sail with his household and some livestock in 982. The direct approach to the island was unsuccessful, due to drift ice, so Eriks party continued on around the southern tip until they came to present-day Julianehab. According to Eiriks Saga, the expedition spent three years on the island; Erik roved far and wide and named all the places he came to. They didnt encounter any other people. They then went back to Iceland to convince others to return to the land and establish a settlement. Erik called the place Greenland because, he said, men will desire much the more to go there if the land has a good name. Erik succeeded in convincing many colonists to join him on a second expedition. 25 ships set sail, but only 14 ships and about 350 people landed safely. They did establish a settlement, and by about the year 1000 there were approximately 1,000 Scandinavian colonists there. Unfortunately, an epidemic in 1002 reduced their number considerably, and eventually, Eriks colony died out. However, other Norse settlements would survive until the 1400s, when communications mysteriously ceased for more than a century. Eriks son Leif would lead an expedition to America around the turn of the millennium.

This is a position paper for an economics case Research

This is a position for an economics case - Research Paper Example This paper discusses the trend and status of prices and the standard of living in the U.S. The current situation in the economy is the weakest though the economic fundamental might show the economy is doing fine. Even when the rate of unemployment is as it lowest, and the free market uninterrupted by economic crisis there is more to be done on the prices of goods. People may be in employment, but still life in poverty because the cost of living is high. The economy of the United States has increased since the inception of the industrial revolution with the exception of instances of economic crisis in 19 30 and other financial crisis including the 2007 -2008 financial turmoil. During the recession, the economy output of the country decreases and people lose job, as a result. In case where people keep their job they do so with pay cut to ensure that the industry survives the crisis. This demonstrates the worst of the effect of prices in the economy. However, during the boom it is only a few who benefits and the rest of the people condition remain unchanged. Moreover, the government had resulted to borrowing to maintain a high standard of living. This, however, has a negative effect on prices and inflation. The country right now is dealing with the problem of debt, and it had reached the maximum amount that was set earlier by the congress. Therefore, failure to pass a debt ceiling bill that increases the level at which the government can borrow leave the government operation vulnerable and a possibility of defaulting past engagements. The challenges of unstable prices are borne by consumers because they are trapped within their wages. The United State Bureau of Census and concern from the labour sector has been raising concerns of the living standard in the next decades. The Bureau of Census has projections of the country’s economic capability to maintain a healthy

Management Role Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management Role - Assignment Example How mny trining progrms tell them how to pply this fund of knowledge This problem is common to ledership selection s well s to ledership trining, nd I shll discuss tht in the pper tht follows. Mngers selection is the decision process by which pplicnts re ssigned to one of two possible outcomes (e.g., "hire" vs. "do not hire"). The decision could be with regrd to hiring for prticulr job or prticulr clss of jobs. Mngers clssifiction refers to decision process tht requires ech individul to be either not hired or hired nd then ssigned to one of two or more job lterntives. Tht is, if individuls re hired, there re lterntive job ssignments for which they could be considered. If there exist some set of ssignment decision rules tht will yield more benefit to the orgniztion thn rndom ssignment, then there exists potentil clssifiction gin. Consequently, the benefits from improving selection nd clssifiction procedures cn ccrue from two mjor sources. Better selection would bring in people whose predicted benefit would be higher, no mtter wht the job ssignment (i.e., verged cross ll the different jobs they could tke). Better clssifiction would, for ll those people hired, chieve better "fit" of individuls with different chrcteristics to jobs with different requirements. The more ny orgniztion cn lern bout the benefits nd costs of lterntive methods for selecting nd clssifying the individuls who pply, the more effective its personnel mngement systems cn be. Idelly, personnel mngement would benefit most from complete simultion of the entire system tht would permit full rnge of "wht if" questions focused on the effects of chnges in () lbor supply, (b) recruiting procedures, (c) selection nd clssifiction mesures, (d) decision-mking lgorithms, (e) pplicnt preferences, (f) vrious orgniztionl constrints, nd (g) orgniztionl gols (e.g.. mximizing ggregte performnce, chieving certin distribution of individul performnce in ech job, minimizing ttrition, minimizing discipline problems, or mximizing morle). Further, it would be desirble to hve good estimte of the specific costs involved when ech prmeter is chnged. However, describing, or "modeling" effective selection nd clssifiction in lrge orgniztion is complex business. When considering ll the vritions in ll the relevnt components, there my be dozens, or even hundreds, of lterntive models. lso, there is lwys t lest one constrint on mngers decision-mking specific to the orgniztion, which complictes the decision model even further. The overll complexity of ny rel-world personnel mngement sitution is such tht it probbly cnnot be fully modeled by currently vilble nlytic methods (Cmpbell, 1990). It my not be possible even to describe ll the potentil prmeters tht influence the outcomes of rel-world selection procedure. However, for purposes of setting the context for this series of projects, we strt by simply listing some of the mjor prmeters of selection nd clssifiction decision-mking tht we do know bout, nd the principl implictions of ech. The Gol(s) of Selection By definition, selection nd clssifiction decision procedures re implemented to chieve prticulr objective, or set of objectives. Identifying the objective(s) for the selection system is the most criticl ingredient in the design of the

Smoking among Teenagers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Smoking among Teenagers - Research Paper Example Not only this but also a teen’s exposure to cigarette smoke increases the risk of metabolic syndrome. Smoking during the teenage impacts the teenager’s overall health, lung efficiency, reduces concentration span as a result of which his or her academic performance is hampered. Youth is that period of our lives where our mind and body are at their peaks but smoking during teenage deprives one of giving one’s best performance in all walks of life (Hales, 2009-2010). The hazards of teenage smoking and its causes can be traced to the determinants of health as per the ecological model. THE ECOLOGICAL MODEL The ecological perspective on health includes individual and environmental factors. The ecological model stresses that for community assessment, it is important to look beyond individual factors and also incorporate organizational and community factors. As per the ecological model, behavior at the individual level is influenced by biological, physiological, psycholo gical and emotional states. The psychological aspect of teenage smoking is that teenagers have it at the back of their mind that smoking makes them more ‘cool’ and mature. Many a times a teenager tries the first puff just to imitate his or her favorite celebrity. The social and cultural beliefs of family, friends and peers comprise of the interpersonal level. Smoking behavior of a teen is influenced by family: for instance if one of the parents smokes, then the child tends to smoke too. Heredity is the main biological factor: for instance women who smoke during pregnancy are indirectly making their unborn children prone to nicotine. These children develop a liking for nicotine and also show quick addiction. Friends are part family members and usually a teen is more influenced by friends than by his family. Many teenagers testify that their friends forced them to take the first puff (Harris, 2010). The physiological factors for teenage smoking will include nicotine metab olism and excretion. Cultural beliefs are very correctly depicted in the promotions of the Marlboro Man (McLeroy, 1988). At the organizational and community level, economic, physical and structural factors influence behavior. This level encompasses educational programs, mass media, counseling, support groups and organizational incentives. Public policy is another domain at which assessment can be done for a community. The Public Policy shows the state’s stance on health and related issues. For instance public service messages against teenage smoking and awareness programs come under public policy. Not only this but also public policy includes national laws for teenage smoking like a ban on selling cigarettes to a minor (Harris, 2010). Relationships with family, friends, neighbors, contacts at work, and acquaintances form the interpersonal processes which influence health behaviors. These relationships are particularly more influential in a teenager’s life as his mind i s vulnerable and he tends to adopt common behavior in his surroundings. The way a teenager deals with stress is also influenced by these relationships. If an adult smokes excessively during stress than his teenage son would do the same under stress. If the same interpersonal relationships can provoke a teenager to smoke then they can also work as support systems in times of stress and rehabilitation (for smoking or alcohol addicts). However if a

Leadership roles and responsibilites Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leadership roles and responsibilites - Essay Example It has been viewed in Ofsted report that additional funding is accessible for the college in order to deliver well-equipped preparation courses to its learners throughout the globe. The additional funding, curriculum design and the offers which formulate by the college ultimately pose significant impact upon teaching and learning of the students by a greater extent. The college seeks to deliver more standard preparation courses by investing substantial amount in human capital for attracting as well as increasing its students level. In order to build skills within the team, the college introduces online training courses and establishes curriculum sessions as training modes for its teaching staffs (Ealing, Hammersmith & West London College, 2012). 9 References 10 Part 1 Organizational Context The person possessed 12 years of knowledge or experience as a tutor, teacher and manager in the field of education. The tutor within the educational context performed certain effective leadership qualities such as development manager, course team leader, program manager and technical team leader. Moreover, the tutor also provided active support in different areas which include classroom management, resource planning and quality control of the teaching courses. In relation to organisational context and Ofsted report, it has been viewed that Ealing Hammersmith and West London College aims to deliver a welcoming multicultural setting for its staffs, learner as well as visitors. In order to fulfil this aim, the college regularly performs ethical and legal responsibilities in order to eradicate any sort of discrimination or harassment and tends to promote better relations with every member linked with the college. The management section of the report affirmed that the college has implemented a kind of whole organisation approach which ensures that the learners of the college are able to perform their roles in a secured and inspiring environment. The Ofsted report also stated that as the college is the biggest provider of Further Education (FE) programs in the United Kingdom, the managerial approach of the college might reflect or play a chief contributory part upon the position of FE in the ever changing arena of funding (Ealing, Hammersmith & West London College, n.d.). A Brief Description of Three External and Three Internal Factors External- Changing policies of British Government and UK Border Agency (UKBA), rapid emergence of Information Technology (IT) and alterations in visa regulations for entry to international students. Internal- Interdepartmental competitiveness and lack of a unified delivery approach, standard hours of teaching and superior level of diversity in all classes. The aforementioned external as well as internal factors can impose significant impact upon the educational culture by a significant level. In this similar context, the external factor of changing policies of British Gov’ and UKBA can reduce the inflow of international students to the UK. The rapid emergence of IT might support the teachers to keep themselves with regular updates relating to current technologies. The alterations in visa regulations might affect the students coming to study in different colleges. The internal factor of interdepartmental competiveness along with lack of a unified delivery approach can negatively affect the organizational culture. Another internal factor of

Business Communication Trend Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Communication Trend - Essay Example Business Communication Trend: Introduction: Life in the contemporary age is changing faster than ever before. Modern age is extremely influenced by technology, and we depend upon technology for almost every matter in our daily life. Our personal and social lives revolve around technology one way or another. Modern age business is no less influenced by technology. More and more businesses are becoming paperless in order to acquire the most appreciated â€Å"green† tag. Distances have lost their meaning with the readily available transport. Work does not require daylight to be executed. Hence, development has become a never stopping process. Globalization has brought cultures close to one another. Societies are becoming more and more multicultural with every passing day. Likewise, workplaces have become culturally heterogeneous in many advanced countries of the world in the present age. In modern business environment, people from different cultures and belonging to different cas tes, colors and ethnicities have to frequently interact with one another in order to accomplish the organizational objectives and keep the work flowing smoothly. Linguistic barriers have for long, remained one of the biggest obstacles in the way of growth of business. On the other hand, multiculturalism in business has always been encouraged because it allows consideration of business strategies from different cultural standings. Taking this into consideration, business entrepreneurs have traditionally remained exposed to extreme challenges of inculcating unity in a multicultural workforce. However, some of the communication strategies recently discovered have been widely implemented in business settings, and have produced fruitful results. This paper discusses some of the modern trends is business communication and explains, how they are best suited to the contemporary industrial world. Role of communication in business: Communication is a vital element of business. In the past, wh en there was no technology to facilitate business, communication in business used to be conducted through written memos. Business letters used to be the fundamental means of conveyance of strategies across the branches, and thus business had to suffer from large delays of mail delivery. â€Å"Face-to-face meetings were held, often ending with a handshake† (Hunt, 2010). With the evolution of technology, business communication matured manifolds and facilitated the business in many potential ways. In the modern business scenario, workers interact with one another through various means of communication that include but are not limited to email, videoconferencing and teleconferencing. Some principles of communication in modern age business: In any kind of business, communication must be conducted according to some basic principles that include composition, capitalization, wording, persuasion, abbreviation, organization, tone, grammar and spelling (Blake and Bly, 1991). Various mea ns of business communication: Email: Since the advent of computers, and more truthfully, the internet, significance of papers in business has faced a severe downfall. Emails have replaced the traditional paper memos that have for long, remained an integral part of business for the purpose of communication. However, in order to make the communication effective, certain email etiquettes have to be complied

Passion of Christ Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Passion of Christ - Essay Example Above all the human nature of the Son of God is beautifully expressed in the film through different emotional incidents. The film starts with a gloomy environment when Christ cries heavily to save him from the forthcoming danger which makes us get surprised that even Christ was so scared of death. Then his own disciple Judas betrays him and Jesus gets arrested. At this time Peter severs one of the soldier's ears showing his faithfulness to Christ but he himself later on denies Jesus three times which symbolizes our weak human nature. When he is brought before the judges he is fired with a lot of questions but Christ keeps his calm temper. The Pharisees being very determined to put Christ to death bring him to the sheriff. The sheriff hesitates to punish him since his wife had been very much disturbed in her dreams regarding Christ. But unable to withstand the pressure of the Pharisees he immerses his hands in water symbolizing that he has no role in whatever happens to Christ and leaves Christ to the Pharisees. The soldiers torture Jesus so cruelly that when he gets lashed his whole body turns red wit h wide marks and the scene is so real that it evokes tears. On his way to the mountain where he is to put on cross he remembers various incidents which instigate our emotions.

Leadership roles and responsibilites Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leadership roles and responsibilites - Essay Example It has been viewed in Ofsted report that additional funding is accessible for the college in order to deliver well-equipped preparation courses to its learners throughout the globe. The additional funding, curriculum design and the offers which formulate by the college ultimately pose significant impact upon teaching and learning of the students by a greater extent. The college seeks to deliver more standard preparation courses by investing substantial amount in human capital for attracting as well as increasing its students level. In order to build skills within the team, the college introduces online training courses and establishes curriculum sessions as training modes for its teaching staffs (Ealing, Hammersmith & West London College, 2012). 9 References 10 Part 1 Organizational Context The person possessed 12 years of knowledge or experience as a tutor, teacher and manager in the field of education. The tutor within the educational context performed certain effective leadership qualities such as development manager, course team leader, program manager and technical team leader. Moreover, the tutor also provided active support in different areas which include classroom management, resource planning and quality control of the teaching courses. In relation to organisational context and Ofsted report, it has been viewed that Ealing Hammersmith and West London College aims to deliver a welcoming multicultural setting for its staffs, learner as well as visitors. In order to fulfil this aim, the college regularly performs ethical and legal responsibilities in order to eradicate any sort of discrimination or harassment and tends to promote better relations with every member linked with the college. The management section of the report affirmed that the college has implemented a kind of whole organisation approach which ensures that the learners of the college are able to perform their roles in a secured and inspiring environment. The Ofsted report also stated that as the college is the biggest provider of Further Education (FE) programs in the United Kingdom, the managerial approach of the college might reflect or play a chief contributory part upon the position of FE in the ever changing arena of funding (Ealing, Hammersmith & West London College, n.d.). A Brief Description of Three External and Three Internal Factors External- Changing policies of British Government and UK Border Agency (UKBA), rapid emergence of Information Technology (IT) and alterations in visa regulations for entry to international students. Internal- Interdepartmental competitiveness and lack of a unified delivery approach, standard hours of teaching and superior level of diversity in all classes. The aforementioned external as well as internal factors can impose significant impact upon the educational culture by a significant level. In this similar context, the external factor of changing policies of British Gov’ and UKBA can reduce the inflow of international students to the UK. The rapid emergence of IT might support the teachers to keep themselves with regular updates relating to current technologies. The alterations in visa regulations might affect the students coming to study in different colleges. The internal factor of interdepartmental competiveness along with lack of a unified delivery approach can negatively affect the organizational culture. Another internal factor of

Passion of Christ Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Passion of Christ - Essay Example Above all the human nature of the Son of God is beautifully expressed in the film through different emotional incidents. The film starts with a gloomy environment when Christ cries heavily to save him from the forthcoming danger which makes us get surprised that even Christ was so scared of death. Then his own disciple Judas betrays him and Jesus gets arrested. At this time Peter severs one of the soldier's ears showing his faithfulness to Christ but he himself later on denies Jesus three times which symbolizes our weak human nature. When he is brought before the judges he is fired with a lot of questions but Christ keeps his calm temper. The Pharisees being very determined to put Christ to death bring him to the sheriff. The sheriff hesitates to punish him since his wife had been very much disturbed in her dreams regarding Christ. But unable to withstand the pressure of the Pharisees he immerses his hands in water symbolizing that he has no role in whatever happens to Christ and leaves Christ to the Pharisees. The soldiers torture Jesus so cruelly that when he gets lashed his whole body turns red wit h wide marks and the scene is so real that it evokes tears. On his way to the mountain where he is to put on cross he remembers various incidents which instigate our emotions.

How Did Men Deal with the Stress of World War II Essay Example for Free

How Did Men Deal with the Stress of World War II Essay The iconic â€Å"thousand-yard stare†, a far-off, unfocused gaze characteristic of soldiers who had succumbed to the trauma of war by dissociating from it, emerged with its name through the chilling photos of soldiers who were overtaken by these symptoms in the wake of World War II. It’s no surprise that war takes a toll on the psyche of all those affected by it. Given the brutality and scope of World War II, which began only 21 years after World War II (a war that had already ravaged the landscape and people of Europe leaving high estimates of the death toll at 65 million deaths), civilians and soldiers alike were engulfed in total war. As Hitler and the Nazis’ ideology was based on â€Å"A War of Extermination† fueled by a racial ideology that sought for the ethnic cleansing and complete reengineering of the social population of Europe, the massive amount of Soviet soldiers that perished as they were thrown wave after wave in order to slow the Nazi war machine, and the general cruelty that was apparent in this war, soldiers upon soldiers grew appalled by the nature of the war. As one soldier confesses in The Italian Job, â€Å"After three months, it was demoralizing†¦ it was every night, every night everybody was hunting Germans, everybody was out to kill anybody†¦ we was insane†¦ We did become like animals in the end†¦ Yes, just like rats†¦ It was far worse than the desert. You were stuck in the same place. You had nowhere to go. You didn’t get no rest, like in the desert. No sleep†¦ You never expected to see the end of it. You just forgot why you were there† (Addison 208). Often times, the amount of effort put into it and the lives sacrificed seemed to far outweigh the benefits reaped from both; Gottlob Herbert Bidderman, a German soldier that was present on the Eastern Front reflected on â€Å"the insignificance of twelve kilometers: twelve kilometers—in an endless land, where unbroken fields stretched to the horizon before us from sunrise to sunset. I wondered how many more twelve-kilometer battles lay ahead of us during our march away from the setting sun† (Bidderman 23). However, like anything that people are overexposed to, these men slowly grew accustomed to and desensitized to the trocities and horrors of the war. Human beings are naturally adaptive beings and history has shown time and time again that they do what is needed in order to survive. It would be simplistic to classify each of the nations and their armies as being uniform in their coping with the war – due to the specific nature of some of the problems and solutions that emerged from belonging to that particular nation (such as the Soviets reveling in their loyalty and the cult-like worship of Stalin and the Nazis racial ideology being one that ensured in their mind their victory), but many men, regardless of their affiliation, handled the war similarly. Some treated the time on these fronts as a long extended workday, disassociating from the acts they committed and the sights they witnessed as simply being a part of a job. Others turned to their families away from home – brothers and sisters, who through their common experiences, pains, and moments of hope, stood together in solidarity. Others turned to the bottom of a bottle to ease the pain; while others turned instead upwards to a higher power, or at the very least began to frequent religious services. Those who were not willing to look quite so loftily turned to their superiors and leaders for guidance and bravery; while in the case of the Soviet soldiers, glanced fearfully backwards as the higher-ups pushed them forward to their death. Far away from home and under harsh conditions, food and other chanced upon provisions and commodities would often serve as a best to moral. Due to the sheer breadth of stress embodied in being a soldier in any front during WWII, soldiers dealt with the immense strain in varying ways in order to keep intact their humanity, or at the very least, keep their sanity so that they could ensure their survival. There is a perception held by many idealistic, young men that war is a somewhat akin to a noble crusade. However, there is the reality is much more analogous, to as one German soldier put it â€Å"this is ten times worse than hell† (Grossman 151). A scene from the Italian Job details this hell: â€Å"some (too many, far too many) were carried in dying, with gross combinations of shattered limbs, protrusions of intestines and brain from great holes in their poor frames torn by 880millimetre shells, mortars and anti-personnel bombs. Some lay quiet and still, with legs drawn up – penetrating wounds of the abdomen. Some were carried in sitting up on the stretcher, gasping and coughing, shot through the lungs †¦ All were exhausted after being under continuous fire, and after lying in the mud for hours and days† (Addison 208). As a result, as these idealistic notions were lost, many turned to viewing the entire ordeal as a job. Having suffered through the war for some time, one soldier remarked, â€Å"You’re fighting for the skin in the line. When I was enlisted I was patriotic as hell. There’s no patriotism in the line. A boy up there 60 days in the line is in danger every minute. He ain’t fighting for patriotism† (Addison 210). Another soldier enjoyed fighting at dawn as he felt that it was almost as if he was heading off to work at the factory. Rather than consciously thinking of all of the horrors that they were witnessing on a daily basis and focusing on the fact that they could die at any moment, the concept of just doing a job provided a blanket under which these men sought to maintain control of their humanity by separating their psyches from the appalling state of being they were in. A man in an earlier war who was quoted in Addison’s book stated that â€Å"whatever its size a man’s world was his section—at most, his platoon; all that mattered to him was the one little boatload of castaways with whom he was marooned on a desert island making shift to keep off the weather and any sudden attacks by wild beast† (Addison 211). Away from their families and friends, immersed in a bloody war where hundreds upon thousands of people could die in a skirmish or battle, these soldiers could only count on each other to truly understand the situation they were currently in. Beaten and battered together, having lost many of the same friends, triumphed momentarily, or retreated hastily, this mutual understanding gave way to a support group – a family who soldiers could lean upon and secure their well being. Of this, Bidermann wrote, â€Å"Our thoughts were constantly occupied by the tenuous if not hopeless situation in which we found ourselves. We received solace only in our numbers and in being with comrades with whom we had shared so many experiences over the weeks, months, and years† (Bidermann 266). Repeatedly throughout the 3 readings, there is mention of men, whether they in the heat of battle or â€Å"relaxing† with company, being drunk. It’s no surprise as alcohol has been a means by which men have coped with their problems for thousands of years. If the problems won’t go away, the solution for some has been to drink until those problems do not register as problems anymore. As such, Holmes noted â€Å"headaches were almost universal in a theatre of war where wine and brandy were readily available† (Addison 212). Grossman ctually talks about how his battalion commander Kozlov, in the midst of battle, â€Å"withstood an attack of tanks. He was on great form and completely drunk. The tanks were thrown back in a dashing fashion† (Grossman 103). As religion has functioned as a form of comfort since the inception of civilization and the birth of religion, it was only natural for men living in depravity to come to it to relieve them of some of their burden. Subsequently, the men of the clergy were often instrumental to moral and aid. Furthermore, due to the looming possibility of death in war, the mortality of some became that much more apparent. In Bidermann’s account, he talks of a divisional chaplain named Satzger who had several times risked his life to recover wounded men. Resulting from men of the cloth like Satzger and with death looming, â€Å"many of the soldiers who had not been so inclined began to attend religious services †¦ For far too many [the chaplain] would offer the last voice of reassurance and the last vestige of comfort before they, too, succumbed to mortal wounds† (Bidermann 25). Another Catholic priest was dubbed â€Å"the rucksack priest† as he carried a field pack from which he provided troops on the front lines with simple food items that had in war become luxuries. While it may have been a spiritual solace that many received at the hands of these men of God, others attended for the sake of having a comforting and helping hand. It’s been told that leaders are supposed to lead by example. Caught in chaotic times, superior officers often functioned as beacons to rally around. In times past, great leaders such as George Washington, Alexander the Great, and Genghis Khan immersed themselves in battles, showing that the best commanders do not directing them from the rear, but rather leading them in the front. A commanding officer by the name of â€Å"Captain Kendall, turned a shaky company into a passably good one by public displays of sheer guts. ‘Look at me,’ he said quietly, walking from man to man under fire. ‘They can’t hit me. Look at me’† (Addison 210). Examples like this provided moral boosts to dreary men who needed something positive to cling to. Conversely, rather than inspiring by a guiding light of bravery and courage, the Soviets were incentivized onwards by the ever-present detachments behind the troops that would shoot deserters. Grossman describes this in further detail: â€Å"Stalin’s Order No. 27 – ‘Not One Step Back’ – included the instruction to each army command to organise ‘three to five well-armed [blocking] detachments (up to two hundred men each)’ to form a second line to ‘combat cowardices’ by shooti ng down any soldier who tried to run away† (Grossman 141). As many Soviet soldiers understood the likelihood of their death in squaring off against the Nazis, the desire to flee was understandable. Stalin believed that the presence of the troops would force the Soviet troops to fight even harder. Pushed forwards, the stark realization of soldiers was expressed by Grossman: â€Å"Once you are here, there is no way out. Either you will lose your head or your legs†¦ Everyone knows that those who turn and run would be shot on the spot. This was more terrifying than the Germans† (Grossman 146). Under the constant strain of needing to ration supplies and consistently cut off from supply lines, soldiers had to make do with their limited resources. Given the treacherous nature of the constant advancement and lack of luxuries, whenever there was time to enjoy the comfort brought by certain goods that had faded away from recent recollection to distant memories, the time was relished and the goods provided relief to the men. In fact, Bidermann specifically noted several instances where his regiment and he would partake in â€Å"luxuries† that were not available to them by enjoying the spoils of war. â€Å"Two August was marked by a break in the monotonous field rations, when we boiled freshly dug potatoes in an unnamed Ukrainian village. Obserschutze Fehr had already plucked a chicken, and together with the boiled hen and potatoes we ate peeled cucumbers† (Bidermann 24). In another instance, his crew discovered a still-intact collective farm and was able to enjoy hot coffee, schmalzbrot, and sleep in small thatched-roof huts. Though seemingly commonplace to us, moments such as these provided brief relief and respite from the horrors of daily life across the theatres, and allowed soldiers to momentarily reflect on how life used to be. Constantly under an onslaught of forces that, if mishandled, could cause a man to lose his mind, soldiers used some, if not all, of the aforementioned forms to provide relief or inspiration in persevering in their struggle. Under pressure, these men had to find whatever means by which to motivate themselves to return safely home, and more so than that, return home as much themselves as before.

The Political Climate Of 16th Century England

The Political Climate Of 16th Century England Introduction Rarely has there been a time in history where there has been a convergence of scholarly mind, political activism and ardent spiritual concern as that of the four Thomass of 16th century England. The four men represented in this research were all born within 16 years of each other, attained to the pinnacles of religious and political power and fell to meet there demise in disfavor, and with the exception of Wolsey (who died on the way to trial for treason) met their end at the hand of an executioner. Subsequently, having the same name was only one of many commonalities that each of these contemporaries possessed. Yet, the most important attribute by far (whether that was a blessing or bane), was that each had the ear of King Henry the VIII. How did they use their influence? Was this influence wielded in favor of their religious conviction? Were they primarily motivated by self-interest? This research asserts that a combination of the two motivations existed. Two of the men here focused upon were influential Catholics (Cardinal Wolsey and Saint Thomas More) and two were instrumental in establishing the reformed position in the Anglican Church (Cromwell and Cranmer). It might be noted that each had varying degrees of commitment to a reformed agenda, especially in the case of Cromwell; however the influence of these men set the stage for a breech between the Anglican Communion and the Catholic See, which remains to this day. In fact, the issues that were a precursor to this division still provides constant fodder for the present Archbishop of Canterbury and others who seek a reunion with the Church at Rome. In order to examine the extent of the influences of the four Thomass on 16th century England, it becomes necessary to first survey the political and religious climate that existed, as well as the Roman church and the seeds of Protestantism that were planted by the Reformed movement in Continental Europe. Perhaps the most monumental time in the history of English reformation, and therefore one that would later directly impact religious development in the North American colonies, was the period in the 16th century between the reign of King Henry the VIII and Elizabeth I. The reign of the Tudors proved at times to be as much controversial, as it was tumultuous. This was due in large part to the relationships surrounding Henry VIII and his six wives. Therefore, Henry was not a reformer at heart, or for theological reasons as much as for the legal ramifications surrounding his annulment to Catharine of Aragon, and the reluctance of the Pope to recognize this annulment. In fact, the pope was requested to reverse an earlier Papal dispensation that would then make Henrys first marriage, (a marriage to Catharine, his brothers widow) of no effect. Henrys position was that this marriage should be annulled because it went against Cannon law which was based on a passage from Leviticus. This ordin ance made it unlawful to marry a brothers widow, based on a passage in Leviticus. However, Catharine was the aunt of Charles V, Who was the leader of Spain as well as the Holy Roman Emperor, and as Gonzalez states, The pope, cement VII, could not invalidate Henrys marriage to Catherine without alienating Charles V. Most historians suggest that this position was the primary factor for further alienation between the house of Tudor and Rome, yet Henry had been a dedicated catholic and even came to the defense of the church, writing a remonstrance of sorts to the work of Luther. Newcombe states, But Henry VIIIs agenda was quite different and he was generally hostile to the reforming ideas that began to find their way to England from continental Europe. This hostility took the form of a pamphlet written, probably with the help of the theologian Thomas More, called Assertio septem sacramentorum adversus Marinum Lutherum (defense of the Seven Sacraments against Martin Luther) which first a ppeared in 1521. Henry was awarded the title Defender of the Faith by the Pope, and this recognition was so pleasing to the king that he continued to acknowledge it and kept it in his royal style even after the break with Rome. Indeed, there is little evidence to suggest that Henry was dissatisfied with the doctrines or practices of the church in themselves. The Religious/Political Climate of 16th Century England At the end of the Wars of Roses, Henry Tudor ascended to the throne (as Henry the VII) and until the civil war in 1642, the reign of the house of Tudor was generally a peaceful one. After the death of Henry VII the throne was passed to Henry VIII in 1509. Forgeng states, Henry had no desire to make any significant changes in church teachings, but there was growing pressure in the country to follow the lead of the continental Protestants such as Martin Luther; English Protestants were later heavily influenced by Calvin, a French Protestant who established a rigidly Protestant state in Geneva. This form of religious awakening would continue to have an effect on the populace, some of which would express itself in the Puritan movement in later years. Noll states, In most general terms, the Puritan movement had represented a desire to finish the English Reformation, to complete the work of purifying church, society and self that began under henry VIII (reigned 1509-1547) and Edward VI (15 47-1553) which was temporarily reversed under the Roman Catholic Mary I (1553-1558), but which was eventually secured under Elizabeth I (1558-1603). It would seem that even though Henry was very firmly ground in the Catholic faith and tradition, the new waves of Protestantism on the continent of Europe were lapping, as it were, at the white cliffs of Dover. The seeds of reformation were being sown which in turn would make the movement grow in earnest during the reign of Edward. The Catholic Church in the Tudor Period In a much broader sense, the Catholic Church was in the midst of withstanding an onslaught of reformation activities which was to decrease its influence in Europe exponentially. This was in part, due to the erosion of Papal authority which was a direct result of its intervention in affairs of state. British author and historian A. G. Dickens states, Standing on the summit of this huge pyramid, the medieval Popes, however unwillingly, became political rivals of emperors and kings. Thomas Hobbes must admittedly be accounted a hostile witness, yet he did no more than overstate a genuine historical insight when in 1651 he looked back on the Papacy and called it the Ghost of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon the grave thereof. So long as the church maintained friendly contacts with the Empire and its powerful successor-states, it could normally call upon physical force to crush doctrinal dissenters, and usually, in the authentic Roman style, without permitting any two-way ar guments. So it was that the Pope, at the time of the conflict with Henry VIII, saw the wisdom in avoiding alienation of the Holy Roman Empire, and in particular, Charles V who was at its head, and also was directly related to Catherine, Henrys first wife. Dickens also notes that, Without question the English Reformation belonged to that far larger breakaway which detached half Europe from the Papacy. The Protestant Reformation in Tudor England It seems that the Protestant Reformation was quite inevitable in 16th century England, given the winds of change blowing from the continent of Europe and bolstered by the teaching of Luther, Calvin and Zwingli. It was only a matter of time until the force of these teachings found its way into the heart of the people of Great Britain. However, the endeavor received impetus that was quite unexpected, in the form of the tenuous relationship that arose between the Pope and the Crown. Rosman states, According to the laws of the land, England became a Protestant realm in 1559. This legislative definition of religion was more important that twentieth-century readers may appreciate. The nation-states that emerged in sixteenth-century Europe were validated by religion. People who adhered to alternative faiths in preference to the official one challenged the political as well as the religious order. In England citizenship and creed were inseparable, as they were in most other European states. To be an English person was to be a member of the Church of England. This paradigm or way of thinking, serves to amplify the magnitude of what was taking place in Tudor England. Though there were many complex issues that constituted this irrevocable change, it must also be noted that the actions and influence wielded by certain individuals, close to the crown, played a decisive role in the events that would follow. These events would shape the Reformation, and it is here that we examine the four Thomass. The Influence of Four Contemporaries Thomas Wolsey (1478-1530) Thomas Wolsey served as the chief advisor to Henry the VIII in a position known as Lord Chancellor. He was born in humble surroundings, yet received a fine education and then becoming ordained as a priest in 1498. Through a series of advancements, he was appointed Royal Chaplain for Henry the VII, and it can clearly be seen that he would naturally have the ear of the royal prince who succeeded his father. In fact, Henry the VIII made Wolsey part of his privy council, and eventually Lord Chancellor In 1515. Wolsey continued to grow in stature and cultivated favorable relationships with those who could profitably help his causes. Those that did not, were equally disregarded. Wolsey was rewarded for his service to the crown and was made Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop of York. Wolsey was not only faithful in his service to the crown, but he also held favor with Pope Leo X, who made him a Cardinal in 1515 and later, a Papal Legate in. Wolsey became one of the most powerful servants to t he Crown in English history. However, this divided allegiance came to a crossroad when the issue of Henrys annulment to Catharine of Aragon came to a head. Although Wolsey appealed to the Pope more than once to disregard the Papal dispensation that allowed the marriage in the first place, the Pope disregarded these attempts and as Papal Legate Wolsey found himself in conflict with Henry, who began to question his allegiance. By 1528, there was little more Wolsey could do and by 1529, he was arrested and accused of treason. Ordered to London to stand trial, he died en-route in 1530. To Wolseys credit, he did promote the education of the clergy, seeing he himself had benefited from this. Taunton states, There are two ways of bringing about a reform; and they can be summed up in the two words, dont and do. It is easy enough to issue prohibitory laws, and it is just as easy to evade them. This Wolsey understood; and the absence of such decrees in all his educational work is noteworthy. He built upon the more reasonable and therefore more lasting foundation of teaching men to know, and then desire to work. Ignorance, he knew, was the root of most of the mischief of the day: so by education he endeavored to give men the means to know better. In this way, Wolsey, with his influence in the rise of a number of the universities, contributed to education reform as well. Thomas More (1478-1535) The role of Thomas More in this period and the influence he wielded proved a bit more complex. More, like Wolsey, rose through the ranks of faithful service also becoming a member of Henrys privy counsel in 1517, was knighted in 1521 and became the Kings personal secretary and advisor but later, served as a liaison between Wolsey and King Henry VIII. It can clearly be seen that his sphere of influence, though not as extensive as Wolseys, was however rather intimate with regard to his relationship to the king. After Wolsey was deposed in 1529, More was appointed Lord Chancellor in his place. Despite Mores close relationship with Henry, a series of religious reforms enacted by the latter, caused the Chancellor to elevate his opinions in favor of the Church at Rome and therefor against the King. One of the telling events was the refusal of More to attend the coronation of Anne Boleyn, but of greater importance still, was his disagreement with the King order to forbid the payment of Annates, or other contributions to Rome. But the biggest issue was Mores refusal to loyalty to the king as the head of the church. This was due to the Act of Succession passed by parliament in 1534. The act not only assured that title to the English Crown would pass to the Children of Henry and Anne Boleyn, (Elizabeth) but it also required all subjects to swear an oath to the Kings supremacy as head of the Church of England. This was something More was not prepared to do and later, he was charged with treason and finally beheaded in 1535. More, having been a staunch supporter of the Roman church was later beautified by the Pope and finally canonized, and In 1935, four hundred years after his death, Thomas Mores name was added to the official list of saints of the Roman catholic church. However Marius states, So More died for the sacral church. He thought that the pope was the head of that church, but the papacy was merely one office among many in the priestly order, and it is a critical error to say that he died for the authority of the pope in England and to leave it at that, not explaining that he held none of the high-flown doctrines of papal infallibility that have spread their black wings over the skies of catholic modernity. Regardless of ones views on Mores commitment to papal infallibility, one thing is for certain. He supported papal authority as head of the church, and he paid for this conviction with his life. Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540) Of all those who could be counted as leaders in the reformation movement in Great Britain in the 16th century, Cromwell was one of the strongest proponents. After being instrumental in assisting Henry in the annulment of his marriage to Catharine, Cromwell was rewarded as vice-regent and vicar-general, overseeing the affairs of the Church of England. Though he had earlier been an aid to Wolsey, he avoided being associated with Wolseys positions and Cromwell himself was named a member of the privy council, growing in favor with the King. Cromwells importance can particularly be seen as an enforcer of the many new acts of parliament that supported the Act of Supremacy which made Henry and subsequently, his heirs, head of the church. It might also be noted that Cromwell helped to shape religious reform by calling a synod of bishops along with Cranmer and Foxe and the result was a document known as The Institution of the Christian Man. This doctrinal treatise was used to help quell the u prising of several of the clergy who balked at the suppression of the monasteries in England. So it may be seen that Cromwell was more so interested in the doctrinal aspect of the reformation, howbeit, these position supported his own agenda as well. It would see that his real voice was found in the political arena and to that end, he was instrumental in the proceedings of what was known as the Reformation Parliament. However, not long after, his manipulations were short lived in that he helped to arrange the marriage of Henry to Anne of Cleves and this proved to be his undoing. Coby states, Cromwell was answerable for this disaster of a marriage. He conducted the long-distance negotiations with Cleves. Correspondence passed through him and his office without ever receiving comment by henry. The honor or the King required that he not be seen begging for a mate, so underlings had to woo in his stead. That was one reason for Cromwells taking the lead; but so too was the objective of a German alliance, which Cromwell pursued more avidly than any other. Thus as Henry soured on his new wife and despaired of begetting additional heirs, he looked around for someone to blame; and who better than the Lord Privy Seal, who first reported on Annes preeminent beauty. Bolstered by a substantial retinue of Cromwells political enemies, the King had him arrested and he was charged with several crimes including treason. Though he sought to show support for the King, he was executed in 1540. In recent years Cromwell has been called everything, from Henry VIIIs most trusted minister, to his most Notorious minister. Regardless of ones opinion in this regard, there can be no doubt that he had the ear of the sovereign and did push the advancement of Protestant reform in England. Though he was highly motivated by a number of issues, in the end, the means that he employed to bring about his designs were considered somewhat Machiavellian and he faced the scourge of his antagonists when his day finally came in court. It has rightly been pointed out that service to the King at this time was a very precarious proposition. Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) Cranmer studied theology at Cambridge eventually attaining his doctorate and was associated there for over 30 years. When Cardinal Wolsey turned to the universities over the annulment issue, Cranmer gave a good showing and assisted Henry with his support of the annulment and later assisted with the proceedings. Cranmer was then chosen to serve as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1532. Perhaps the most monumental decisions Cranmer made was to denounce the marriage of Henry to Catharine as illegal and in so doing, opened the door for his marriage to Anne. Being archbishop, and therefore under the supposed supervision of the Pope, Cranmers actions infuriated Clement VII. Soon after, both Henry and Cranmer were excommunicated. Cranmers theological positions continued to change and by 1534, it was clear that he took up a Reformist position which continued and helped to solidify the English churches break with the Church of Rome. Shortly thereafter, Anne was sent to the Tower of London for purp orted infidelities and Cranmer was summonsed to hear her confession. Though he supported Annes innocence, he declared Henrys marriage to her null and void, and shortly after this, she was executed. Reforms continued under the guidance of Cromwell and Cranmer and after the death of Cromwell, Cranmers influence grew even more. Cranmer was to come under fire by conservatives who accused him of several misdeeds and though Cranmer escaped their plot with the support of the king, these men, who were opposed to any more reformist ideas continued in their attacks. These too were thwarted and Cranmer continued with his Reformation agenda which culminated in The Book of Common Prayer which effectively changed the liturgy of the church eliminating much of the Catholic form and doctrine. This was one of the most significant changes in the early Reformation period in England. The Book of Common Prayer, for the first time, gave the English people a liturgy in their own language. Cranmer continued to serve, even beyond the death of Henry in 1547 and through the rise of Edward VI. Since Edward ascended the throne at such an early age, the door was open for Cranmer to continue making reforms and this he did with diligence. Advances were made for several years and this continued until the death of Edward. It was Edwards d esire to put his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne to succeed him and she, being a protestant, was supported by Cranmer. However, after the death of Edward, support for Jane fell in the council and, in her stead, the staunchly Catholic Mary was put on the throne. In Queen Marys reign, and earnest attempt was made to restore Catholicism and most of the reformist bishops were replaced by conservatives. Cranmers continued support of reformed doctrine led to his arrest and charged with sedition and treason. Cranmer succumbed to pressure and recanted the doctrine of the reformation and instead espoused the doctrines of the catholic faith. However, when he looked to have his sentence commuted, Mary did not stay the execution. In the end, Cranmer renounced the fact that he recanted from the Reformist doctrine and determined to die a martyr of the Protestant faith. In his final statement, he determined to thrust his own had first into the fire, which signed the recantation, and this promise he kept, when he was burned at the stake in 1556. However, as was true of the blood of the martyrs who died in faith in the past generations, the death of this man also played a role in steeling the courage of those that would follow. Observations and Conclusion Try as she may, Mary could never undo the seeds of reformation that had earlier been planted and these efforts proved to be short lived because she died in 1558. Mary was succeeded by Elizabeth who would enjoy one of the longest sovereign reins up until that time. Elizabeth was a staunch Protestant. Gonzalez states, If the head of the church in England was the pope, and not the king, it followed that the marriage of Henry VII with Catherine of Aragon was valid, and that Elizabeth, born from Anne Boleyn while Catherine still lived, was illegitimate. While Elizabeth was not a protestant extremist in practice, it was certain that she felt that Henry was justified in proclaiming himself head of the Church of England. Elizabeth did not stamp out the practice of Catholicism in the realm, but only suppressed it. However, some Catholics sought to make Mary Stewart, who was in exile, the next sovereign and according to them, rightful heir to the throne. A series of plots to undermine Elizabeth were thwarted and subsequently, Mary was executed, having been found to be a part of them. The seeds of reformation began to grow, and so England saw the rise of a growing number of puritans who were influenced by the teachings of Calvin and one of the primary goals of this group was to return to Biblical Christianity based on the teachings of the New Testament. This growing focus on authentic Christianity lead the way to further reforms and paved the way for a great awakening and evangelical revival in England. Of the four Thomass it is concluded that Cranmer had the most profound and substantial effect on the English reformation in the 16th century. However, it can also be found that political expediency played as much a part of early English reform as did a shift in theological opinion. In balance, all four Thomass, wittingly or unwittingly, hastened the Protestant Reformation in 16th century England. In the case of Cranmer on the protestant side, and More on the Catholic side, these two men seemed to be guided more by conviction than political favor. Wolsey and Cromwell were, as it would seem, more of an opportunist than anything else. In balance, never has there been a time, or religious circumstance for that matter, quite like the 16th century rule of the Tudors. Furthermore, it would seem that the self-interest of the second sovereign (Henry VIII) more than anything, provided the catalyst for reforming work in this period. The researcher therefore concludes that some of the subjects of this research indeed used their substantial influence in favor of their religious convictions, while others were primarily motivated by expediency and self-interest. Therefore, a combination of the two motivations existed. Bibliography of Selected Works Coby, J. Patrick. Thomas Cromwell: Machiavellian Statecraft and the English Reformation. Lantham: Lexington Books, 2009. Dickens, A. G. The English Reformation. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991. Forgeng, Jeffrey L. Daily Life in Elizabethan England. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2010. Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Reformation to the Present Day. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2010. Marius, Richard. Thomas More: A Biography. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. Newcombe, David G. Henry VIII and the English Reformation. New York: Routledge Publishing, 2003. Noll, Mark A. The Rise of Evangelicalism. Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 2003. Rosman, Doreen Margaret. From Catholic to Protestant: Religion and the People in Tudor England. London, University College Press, 1996. Taunton, Ethelred L. Thomas Wolsey: Legate and Reformer. New York: John Lane Publication, 1902.